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Suspending the Political: Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State Alexei Yurchak Anthropology, UC Berkeley Let them read on my gravestone: He wrestled with the notion of species and freed himself from its hold. Velimir Khlebnikov, 1920s The Russian term samizdat originally referred to self-published literature that was forbidden by or at least unavailable in the Soviet state, circulated through uno cial channels, and represented certain views that were alternative to the o cial ideology of that state. Sometimes, in the Soviet Union itself, the term samizdat was used in a broader sense, to mean diverse phenomena of uno cial cultural production—not necessarily of literary origin or dissident politics. In this broader sense, the term may be used to describe music samizdat (also known as magnitizdat), cinematic samizdat (also known as parallel’noe kino—parallel cinema), artistic samizdat, and so forth. This essay considers samizdat in this broader sense, focusing on two examples of cinematic and artistic samizdat that emerged in Leningrad in the early 1980s. Although these cases in point existed uno cially and represented alternative political views, they cannot be quali ed as oppositional or “dissident” in the traditional sense of the term. In the early 1980s, when these uno cial artistic groups rst emerged, they were relatively small and unknown. However, by the end of the decade, when the Soviet state experienced political crisis and suddenly collapsed, these two groups achieved phenomenal fame in Russia. They became popularly associated with the period of “late socialism” in the 1970s–1980s, before the collapse Abstract Poetics Today 29:4 (Winter 2008) 10.1215/03335372-082 © 2009 by Porter Institute for Poetics and Semiotics 714 Poetics Today : of the Soviet state was yet imaginable. This is why the essay rst describes a certain new attitude to Soviet life that was emerging in the early 1980s among young urbanites in Leningrad and then proceeds to discuss the two artistic groups that developed in that context. Organic Di erence “We never went to vote. We simply ignored elections and parades. . . . My only connection with Soviet life was through work and also through the university, which I rarely attended, since I had no time. . . . We simply did not speak with each other about work or studies or politics. Not at all, which is obvious, since we did not watch television, listen to the radio, or read newspapers, until about 1986 [when the reforms of perestroika began].”¹ Thus Inna described her life in the early 1980s, when she was a student at Leningrad University. Inna’s group of friends was interested neither in participating in the Soviet system’s events and institutions, nor in criticizing the system. In her words, “None of my friends was any kind of antisovetchik [anti-Soviet person]. . . . We never spoke about the dissidents, either. Everyone understood everything, so why speak about that? It was neinteresno” [uninteresting]. At that period, when the Soviet state was still experienced as eternal and immutable, increasing numbers of young Soviet urbanites found it irrelevant whether ideological messages of the Party were true or false and instead occupied themselves with interests, values, and pursuits that were neither in support of nor in opposition to that ideology. They avoided talking about politics, considering politics “uninteresting” and “irrelevant.”² The model of existence based on the avoidance of political topics was not invented by these youngsters. Its roots can be traced to previous periods and generations. Writer Sergei Dovlatov (1993) rst encountered this model in the 1960s, when it was still relatively novel and unfamiliar to most of his intelligentsia friends. To describe it, Dovlatov borrows a distinction between two types of truth—“clear truth” and “deep truth”— made by physicist Niels Bohr: clear truth “is opposed by a lie”; deep truth “is opposed by another equally deep truth.” Dovlatov’s circle of young intelligentsia friends in the 1960s was preoccupied with “clear truth”: they argued with passion “about the freedom of art, the right for information, the respect for human dignity” in the Soviet Union. In contrast to their idealist passions and concerns, the new kind of person considered such 1. Interview with author; conducted during eldwork research in 1994. Translation of this and other Russian interviews is mine. 2. See Yurchak 2006 for a more detailed discussion of this attitude. Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 715 questions simply irrelevant, focusing instead on “deep truths” that transcended the problems and concerns of a given historical period and social system (ibid.: 23).³ A vivid manifestation of this model of living was a young Leningrad poet, Joseph Brodsky, beside whom Dovlatov’s nonconformist friends, in his own words, “seemed like people of a di erent profession”: their concerns and interests were radically incongruent with those of Brodsky. Brodsky knew, or rather claimed to know, so little about the goings-on in the Soviet political universe that he thought Dzerzhinsky⁴ was still alive and that Comintern [Communist International] was a musical group. According to Dovlatov, he “could not identify members of the politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party. When the facade of the building where he lived was decorated with a six-meter portrait of Mzhavanadze,⁵ Brodsky asked: ‘Who is this? He looks like William Blake.’” He “created an unheard-of model of behavior,” living “not in a proletarian state, but in a monastery of his own spirit. He did not struggle with the regime. He simply did not notice it” (ibid.). Regardless of the extent to which this attitude was consciously assumed, it became an irreducible part of Brodsky’s everyday life. This ideology of everyday existence vis-à-vis the political sphere of the state became increasingly widespread in the 1970s, especially among the young urban intelligentsia. Inna and her friends mentioned above were a typical example of it. Often such people, regardless of their education, sought employment in boiler rooms and other undemanding jobs that, in exchange for the lowest o cial wage, let them ful ll the state law of obligatory employment. These jobs kept them busy for only two to three night shifts a week, leaving them plenty of free time for other pursuits and interests. One’s obligations were minimized because the work was undemanding and organized in long shifts with breaks in between and because one was usually spared the need to attend political meetings, parades, and other public engagements within the political sphere. Instead of political knowledge, they engulfed themselves in pursuits that referred to some “distant” and nonpolitical topics, places, and times: ancient history, foreign literature, archaeology, Western and “informal” rock music, Buddhism, religious philosophy, theoretical physics, pre-Soviet architecture, n de siècle poetry, and so forth (see Yurchak 2006). An example of this lifestyle was the subculture of informal rock musicians living in Leningrad in the early 1980s. Viewing politics as uninterest3. Translation of this and other Russian texts is mine. 4. The founder of the ChK (the precursor to the KGB) in 1918. 5. A member of the politburo in the mid-1960s. 716 Poetics Today : ing and irrelevant, they also made a distinction between two types of truth. In this case, they drew on the Russian concepts of pravda and istina, which roughly parallel the distinction between Bohr’s “clear truths” and “deep truths” mentioned above. Seeing their pursuit of music “as expressions of istina, as the embodiment of elemental truths about the human condition,” they dismissed the political concerns that “searching for pravda implied” as utterly irrelevant (Cushman 1995: 107–8). In the words of one musician (ibid.: 95): “We’re interested in universal problems which don’t depend on this or that system, or on a particular time. In other words, they were here a thousand years ago, and they still exist—relations between people, the connection between man and nature.” The political presence of the state was seen in this subculture as relatively unimportant, provided one avoided engaging with it directly. As a result, the total “lack of discussion about politics” in this milieu was accompanied by “the complete dearth of any expression of fear on the part of rock musicians, either of the state in the abstract sense, or of the actual potential of it to intrude directly into their lives” (ibid.: 93–94). What united such milieus as that of Inna and her friends, informal rock musicians, and others like them was the experience of being profoundly di erent from common “Soviet people,” as if living in a di erent temporal and spatial dimension. So strong was this experience of di erence that it was often described in biological terms. Inna, for example, speaks of being “organically di erent” from Soviet people, both supporters of and dissenters from the Soviet system: “For us . . . all those pro-system and anti-system types—they were all just Soviet people. And we never thought of ourselves as Soviet persons. We were organically di erent” (my otlichalis’ organicheski). A member of the rock music subculture talks about living “in a di erent dimension” (v drugom izmerenii) and being part of a “di erent species” (drugoi vid ) from that of common Soviet people (author interview). Considering that members of such artistic and intellectual milieus insisted that anything political was profoundly uninteresting to them, that neither support of nor opposition to the state and its ideology was relevant, and, moreover, that they were di erent from “Soviet persons,” is it possible to think of these people in political terms at all? What were the implications of their activities and nonpolitical position toward the Soviet state? To discuss these questions, I turn to two artistic groups that represented this mode of living in the late 1970s and early 1980s. At that time, these groups were relatively unknown to the general public, but when the reforms of perestroika began in the late 1980s, their samizdat texts and artworks quickly achieved phenomenal success and recognition in Russia. Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 717 Mit’ki In the late 1970s, in Leningrad, a group of friends, later to be known as mit’ki, began practicing a curious form of living. According to the group’s self-representation, its typical member was not supposed to follow any current a airs in the Soviet world. Like Inna’s friends in the example above, mit’ki did not read newspapers, watch television, or even go shopping unless absolutely necessary. Indeed, they claimed to know only two local shops, a wine shop and a bread shop. Like others, they sought employment in boiler rooms and similar undemanding jobs that, in exchange for a minimal salary, provided large amounts of free time. Although members of this and similar groups were well educated, and some even graduated from colleges or art schools, they demonstrated a total lack of preoccupation with career, success, and o cial social status. Their behavior seemed highly stylized and was focused on maintaining a disposition of oblivious humility and all-accepting friendliness to everyone they encountered. In autumn 1983, one of the group’s members, Vladimir Shinkarev, while on duty in his boiler room, wrote a short manuscript about his friends, calling them mit’ki (see gures 1 and 2).⁶ The manuscript was planned as neither an accurate description of real events and characters nor as a prescriptive how-to manual. Rather, Shinkarev wanted to convey a certain nonchalant attitude and strategy of everyday living that his friends developed but had not articulated explicitly until he wrote the text.⁷ According to Shinkarev’s text, the physiological life of a typical mitek (singular of mit’ki) was so basic that it required very little money and primitive food to be sustained. That person, the text (Shinkarev 1990 [1983]: 18) explained, “earns not more than seventy rubles a month in his boiler room, where he works one twenty-four-hour shift a week doing absolutely nothing, because he is unpretentious: for example, he can sustain himself for months on cheap processed soft cheese [ plavlennyi syrok], considering this product tasty, good, and economical, to say nothing of the fact that its consumption does not require spending time on cooking.”⁸ To save time and money, the text proceeds to say, members of the group 6. “Little Dmitries,” after the group’s leader, Dmitrii Shagin. 7. The desire to articulate a strategy of living distinguished Shinkarev’s text from such canons of informal style of Soviet irony as Venedikt Erofeev’s book-length phantasmagoria written in 1970 and widely circulated in samizdat during the Soviet period, Moskva-Petushki (later published in English under the title Moscow to the End of the Line; see Erofeev 1992. Although Erofeev’s book was an inspiration for him, Shinkarev explains, “it could not serve as a model for living,” while his own mit’ki book could (interview by the author). 8. Page reference is made to the rst “o cial” publication of this text in 1990. 718 Poetics Today : The group mit’ki, 1985. From the personal archive of Viktor Tikhomirov, a mit’ki member. Figure 1 devised ingenious ways of preparing basic food for themselves for a month in advance. The fact that such food was unappetizing but practical was a vital part of this style of basic living, to which preoccupations with taste, beauty, and health were completely extraneous. For example, a typical mitek would buy “three kilos of jellied meat products [zelets], thirty kopecks a kilo, four loafs of bread, two packs of margarine for extra nutrition, thoroughly mixed these products in a washing bowl, cooked this substance, then preserved it in a ten-liter glass jar and stored it in the fridge. The dish could be consumed cold or warm. In this way, provisions for one month cost only three rubles and also saved tons of time” (ibid.; see gure 3). This manuscript became one of many stories in the group’s rich discursive culture, along with anecdotes, myths, and epics about their lives that they constantly recited in front of new and old, familiar and unfamiliar audiences.⁹ These narratives contributed to creating a typical mitek relation to the sociopolitical world around, without ever engaging that 9. Most of these stories existed in oral form, but some have been published since the end of the Soviet history. Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 719 Mitek on the phone in a boiler room (Shinkarev 1990). Drawing by Alexandr Florensky, trained as an artist, a mit’ki member. Figure 2 world explicitly. At rst glance, the mitek character can be compared to the prototypical “wise fool” in Russian fairytales, such as Ivan the Fool—a naive young peasant man with a heart of gold who always “gets the girl” in the end. In fact, however, the mitek was an inversion of that character. In the traditional fairytale, a sophisticated foreigner (a prince from overseas, 720 Poetics Today : Mitek cooking for a month (Shinkarev 1990). Drawing by Alexandr Florensky, trained as an artist, a mit’ki member. Figure 3 a supernatural being) always loses in the end while the local unsophisticated hero (Ivan the Fool, for example) wins. However, this parallel works only half way: what makes a mitek character unique is that, unlike Ivanthe-fool, he never wins, while never losing, either, because he is simply oblivious to the competition. Consider a typical text describing this character. The group’s members frequently recited it during drinking get-togethers (another frequent activity of the group), and it also circulated in samizdat form around the city: The captain of an ocean liner yells from the bridge: “Woman overboard!” An American runs on deck. In one spirited motion, he tears away his white shorts and a white T-shirt with the slogan “Miami Beach.” He wears steel-colored bathing trunks, his body is covered in a bronze tan. Everyone watches breathlessly. The American runs to the railing, gracefully ies over, enters the water Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 721 without a splash, and con dently cuts the waves in international breaststroke style toward the woman. But . . . ten meters from his goal he drowns! The captain yells again: “Woman overboard!” A Frenchman runs on deck. In one sweeping motion, he tears away his blue shorts and a blue T-shirt with the motto “L’Amour Toujours,” remaining in yellow bathing trunks with parrots. Everyone watches breathlessly. The Frenchman soars over the railing like a bird, performing three somersaults before he hits the water without a splash! He elegantly swims in international butter y strokes to save the woman. But . . . within ve meters from his goal he drowns! The captain roars again: “Woman overboard!” The door to the broom closet opens and a Russian stumbles on deck, blowing his nose and hiccupping. “What broad? Where?” He’s wearing a threadbare, torn, greasy quilted jacket. His pants form huge bubbles over his knees. He slowly takes o his jacket, his striped sailors’ shirt, and unbuttons the only button on his y, remaining in baggy, dirty, kneelength underwear. His body is white and bulky. Shivering with cold, he clutches at the railing, awkwardly tumbles overboard, and falls into the water with a lot of noise and splashes. And . . . drowns instantly! (Shinkarev 1990: pt. 3). The Russian character is a typical mitek. There is no punch line expected to come when he approaches the woman—he does not let it happen, drowning before the suspense. The unexpectedness of this ending is part of the mit’ki aesthetics. It creates an e ect of the utter irrelevance of the cool/uncool dichotomy (see also Yurchak 2006: 240). Mitek’s drowning is not equivalent to losing because he is unaware of the competition, let alone that someone might want to win it. In the end, mitek does win but on his own terms: he is concerned not with the “clear truth” represented by the competition, but with the “deep truth” that transcends these immediate concerns—one grounded in the recognition that di erences between cool and uncool or cosmopolitan masculine hero and parochial wimp are arti cial. Everyday practices in the lives of the mit’ki became highly stylized. They constantly acted out a naive and a ectionate disposition that was full of exaggerated dramatism and kindness. Their peculiar style of speaking was characterized by diminutive language forms and an a ectionate tone; they developed a scru y style of dress, the central feature of which was the ubiquitous stripy sailor’s shirt; when encountering one another, they gesticulated grotesquely and performed lengthy rituals of bear hugging, back patting, and cheek kissing. In these daily practices, reality and performance became indistinguishable. By performing them, one was becoming a different kind of person, one who led his life in a world that was profoundly distinct from the politicized Soviet reality—a world in which neither sup- 722 Poetics Today : port for nor opposition to Soviet reality was important. Not surprisingly, the mit’ki’s motto, repeated an endless number of times in diverse texts and contexts, was: “The mit’ki don’t want to defeat anyone” (mit’ki nikogo ne khotiat pobedit’). This motto, Shinkarev explains, re ected not a passive lack of goals and aspirations, but rather “an actively lived aspiration to nothing [aktivnoe strmelenie k nichemu]—neither to achieving personal success nor to trying to oppose or humiliate anyone” (author interview).¹⁰ A historical analogy helped the group to conceive of this living strategy. Like other milieus of uno cial intellectuals and artists, the mit’ki spent time in their boiler rooms reading samizdat copies of foreign texts from distant places and times; here they came across a translation of ancient Chinese philosophy and, suddenly, remembers Shinkarev, recognized themselves as Taoists—“they were closer to the mit’ki than anyone else” (author interview). According to Taoist teaching, human-made binary discriminations—for example, moral (good/bad) and aesthetic (beautiful/ ugly)—constitute the source of all human troubles and should be abandoned as the ordering principles of human life. Instead, one must act naturally, always practicing “e ortless action” or “nonaction” (wu wei) and avoiding any willful opposition to tampering with reality. In the Chinese tradition, Taoists are the opposite of Confucians, who want to change the world by actively intervening in reality and a ecting others (Tang 1991). In a revealing parallel, the Taoist category of wu wei also reemerged in late socialist China in the 1990s as a particularly important strategy for structuring one’s life. According to Judith Farquhar and Qicheng Zhang (2005: 303), the practices of yangsheng (a form of daily exercise designed to cultivate one’s physical and spiritual life), which exploded in Beijing in the 10. This style of living may seem related to the practice of “estrangement” (ostranenie) theorized by the Russian formalists as an artistic strategy and a strategy of living in the context of the repressive Bolshevik state of the early revolutionary period. According to Svetlana Boym (1996), some strategies of survival practiced by dissident intelligentsia in the later Soviet period, in the 1960s–1970s, were also genealogically linked to estrangement. However, the strategy practiced by mit’ki and similar groups in the 1980s di ered from estrangement in important ways. While estrangement consists of “making things strange” (ibid.: 515), the practice of mit’ki consisted of making things more familiar and authentic than the real thing. Instead of estranging themselves from the norm, they practiced over-identi cation (Žižek 1993; Yurchak 2006: 250–53) with that norm, becoming more “Soviet” than real Soviets and turning themselves into the ultimate grotesque result of the Soviet modernity—depoliticized, unhealthy, all-accepting. If this practice had genealogical links to the earlier practices of estrangement, it was its ultimate reversal. This di erence points to the distinction between the position of a dissident who opposed the system and that of younger Soviet intellectual groups of the 1980s for whom neither support for nor opposition to the system were relevant and who instead practiced living “vnye” (inside/outside) that system (see Yurchak 2006 for discussion). Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 723 post-Mao years, are philosophically organized around wu wei. They argue that, although these practices of self-cultivation may appear “apolitical or even antipolitical,” they contain an important political dimension: through them, people “routinely craft responses to power—and forms of personal power—that go beyond collaboration, co-optation, or any narrow understanding of resistance” and create “political but nonconfrontational forms of life” (ibid.: 310). This parallel is particularly important because of a crucial feature that post-Mao China shares with Soviet late socialism of the 1970s-early 1980s: in both cases, the state is perceived as immutable and omnipotent, and the political is felt to be uninteresting, irrelevant, or something to avoid. To Shinkarev’s surprise, his mit’ki manuscript became an instant hit of samizdat culture.¹¹ Soon it was circulating around the city in multiple typewritten copies.¹² By 1985, the text achieved phenomenal success among wide groups of young urban intelligentsia that recognized themselves in the descriptions provided by the text. The text made them laugh and made them more conscious of how they lived themselves. The mit’ki’s style of speech and dress, and their ritualized forms of embodied behavior, became legendary and were now copied by youngsters all over the city. Many catch phrases from the text entered their language. The reaction to the text was so unexpectedly enthusiastic that, Shinkarev remembers, it became quickly apparent to him, rst, that many “young groups of friends in the city” recognized themselves in the descriptions he provided and, second, that the text was not simply read as a literary work but “ful lled a greater demand of the period” (author interview). Necrorealists At about the same time, in the late 1970s in Leningrad, another group of young friends also experimented with aestheticizing their mundane behavior, activities, and language. The membership of this group was quite uid: core members included Evgenii Yu t, Andrei Mertvyi, Vladimir Kustov, Oleg Kotel’nikov, Konstantin Mitenev, and Andrei Panov. None of them was trained as an artist. Some worked in factories, others studied in technical schools and colleges. Indeed, at the time, they did not think of their experiments as an aesthetic process or artistic project; that realization 11. Based on the author’s interviews with the mit’ki and many members of their generation in Saint Petersburg (conducted in 1994–95 and 2004–2007); see also Sapego (2008). 12. Other reproducing techniques, such as photocopying, were strictly controlled by the state and unavailable. 724 Poetics Today : came much later. So did the group’s name, “necrorealists”: this name was coined in the mid-1980s, when the group’s members started making their rst short lms. The term was meant to signify simultaneously two things: an interest in death and dying and an ironic attempt to place this style in a genealogy of existing art movements, such as sotsrealizm (socialist realism), neorealism, and so forth. They began by improvising various “irrational” events and provocations in the public urban space in front of unsuspecting witnesses. As with the mit’ki (the two groups were not acquainted at the time), when the necrorealists’ style of public provocations was originally developing, in the late 1970s and early 1980s, “no one yet thought that this might sooner or later turn into some professional artistic practice.”¹³ The group’s leader, Evgenii Yu t, did not even think of himself as an artist: “I was studying to become a mechanical engineer and often avoided my college. On such free days, we usually practiced some absurd activities. This continued when after college I started working in some construction job. I was not yet thinking of anything artistic at that time” (author interview). However, when short samizdat lms of their escapades that they made began circulating around the city, they suddenly acquired a cult status as provocateurs. This is when they rst could think of themselves and be thought of by others as doing something “artistic,” though artistic considerations, goals, and identity were still not central to their activities. Like Shinkarev’s samizdat manuscript written about the mit’ki, these crazy actions and lms about them represented something to which many young people in the city responded with enthusiastic recognition. Later, around 1990, the reforms of perestroika allowed them to “suddenly see ourselves as artists and develop our crazy happenings as a professional activity” (author interview). Evgenii Yu t achieved fame as a lmmaker of “necrorealist cinema” while Vladimir Kustov became a successful installation artist and painter. However, without the reforms of perestroika and the changes of the political and economic system that they ushered in, Yu t thinks, the group’s activities “would have probably just faded away.” As with the mit’ki group, I am particularly interested in investigating the roots of this peculiar artistic samizdat that emerged in the late 1970s–early 1980s, before it became popularly recognized as “art” and before group members recognized themselves as “artists.” Necrorealist aesthetics has since been compared by some lm critics to Spanish and French surrealist lm, German expressionism, and British punk (Mazin 1998). However, it is important that when necrorealists were developing their provocations and 13. Author’s interview with Vladimir Kustov (2006). Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 725 rst samizdat lms, in the early 1980s, they were not aware of these traditions. At the same time, when Yu t rst heard about British punk (especially early recordings of the Sex Pistols), in the late 1980s, he recognized them as somewhat kindred spirits. Similarly, when the necrorealists rst encountered the lms of Buñuel and the French surrealists, around 1987, they also recognized a certain a nity of approach.¹⁴ It was after such discoveries that Yu t and some of his friends started seriously contemplating whether they should regard themselves as artists. In the winter of 1978, a group of young men, all friends from a Leningrad neighborhood, wandered around a local cinema. The cinema’s administrator spotted them and suggested that, if they cleared the snow in front of the cinema, he would let them see the lm for free. They readily agreed, were given wooden snow shovels, and set out to work. Hard work soon made them hot, and one of them suggested that it was time to take o some clothes. He proceeded to take o his winter coat, sweater, and undershirt. Without any discussion, the others followed suit, pushing further the absurd aspect of the event: some undressed above the waist, some undressed below the waist, and one of them undressed completely, remaining only in his winter boots. The situation spontaneously turned into a provocation, and the original plan to see the movie was abandoned. They started aimlessly throwing snow in di erent directions with manic enthusiasm. The second oor of the cinema had large windows looking down on the street, and the public waiting for the lm stared in amazement at the scene below; some people smiled embarrassed; some were outraged. A scandal was in the air: “a group of people ran out to the street, someone called the police, everyone was yelling.” Just before the situation turned dangerous, the young men dropped their wooden shovels, grabbed their clothes, and ran away in di erent directions.¹⁵ The absurd nudity, the aimless hyperactivity, and the improvisational character of the event point to a curious aesthetics of public spectacle that the group was developing. Central to that aesthetics was the vigorous and senseless physicality of what went on and an erasure of clear-cut boundaries between reality and performance, common sense, and absurdity. It was a key not only to be spontaneous and to be always ready to suddenly get into the right mood and wholeheartedly join in when a provocation was in the air, but also to avoid any explicit public analysis or explanation of what went on and for what reason. This aesthetics was a permanent presence in their lives, and they called it “dim-witted merriment” (tupoe 14. Interview by the author (mid 1990s and 2004, 2005); see also Mazin 1998: 45. 15. Interviews of the members of this group, conducted in the early 1990s; see also detailed descriptions of this and similar events in Mazin 1998. 726 Poetics Today : vesel’e) and “energetic idiocy” (energichnaia tupost’). In the 1980s, di erent versions of this aesthetics spread among other young artistic milieus and became known in slang as klinika (psychiatric clinic).¹⁶ Another series of regular provocations involved a full-size mannequin of a man that someone in the group stole from the institute of criminological medicine, where it was used to study the e ects of car crashes and other traumas on the human body. The mannequin was made of ne leather and smooth plastic and looked uncannily natural. The group gave it the name Zurab, a Georgian name that sounded exotic in the Leningrad context. In the early 1980s, Zurab became a frequent participant in spontaneous “experiments” (eksperimenty) on the streets. One evening, in the winter of 1984, they dressed the mannequin Zurab in a winter jacket and hat. During the rush hour in the city center, they started an aimless brawl among several dozen men, all members of the group, on the fth oor of a building under reconstruction. The building was missing the front wall, and the ghting men were visible to the pedestrians on the street. At some point, they dropped Zurab from the fth oor to the pavement underneath and then ran out from the building and proceeded to hit the lying body with wooden sticks, shouting that they had to nish him o . Yu t remembers: “Pedestrians on the street thought that it was a real person. People ran over, screaming and yelling: ‘You murderers! What are you doing?’ . . . Everyone was running about; they tried to get a glimpse of the human body lying there. The police showed up.” Suddenly, Zurab’s head tore o , and the petri ed pedestrians saw the spongy plastic innards where his neck was cut, realizing that something was not quite as it seemed. While the crowd was in complete stupefaction, the ghting men grabbed Zurab and left. While for the necrorealists it was often important to create a public provocation, as this event demonstrates, it was also important to avoid doing anything clearly illegal. Indeed, all members of this group were o cially employed, carried good Soviet documents, did not have any links to the dissidents, and did not read dissident literature. Moreover, as discussed earlier, in the 1980s, before perestroika began, such groups as necrorealists and mit’ki did not conceive of their activities or artworks in “political” terms. Although these groups clearly challenged some social and political norms of the Soviet society, they did so not by explicitly articulating their 16. Many such milieus were formed among informal musicians and artists of Leningrad. One example was a large milieu of young people (several hundred) who were close to Sergei Kuryokhin, a legendary musician and enfant terrible of the informal rock scene in Leningrad. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, many of them participated in avant-garde performances of Kuryokhin’s “Pop-Mekhanika” orchestra (see, e.g., Nitochkina 1991). Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 727 actions as a form of opposition but, rather, by acting out a kind of lifestyle that could not be made sense of in terms of the o cial norms. This meant that they did not t the role of “normal” Soviet citizens; to put it di erently, the actions they practiced seemed to transgress something, without transgressing any obvious political and legal norms. It was very important for these groups to avoid any involvement, let alone confrontation, with state authorities. Illegible Forms of Life In retrospect, in 2004, Yu t analyzes their public provocations at the time as follows: “We were unconsciously trying to create a situation that broke the frame of a familiar perception, fell outside the boundaries of social stereotypes” (nakhoditsya za gran’iu sotsial’nykh stereotipov), and “hit a kind of logical dead end” (logicheskii tupik). However, “at that time, no one of us thought in those terms. Nor did we think of aesthetics, let alone cinema. . . . At that time, this thinking was rather latent. For us this was just a type of merriment at the expense of those we provoked.” The necrorealists’ absurd events materialized suddenly and rushed by quickly, giving their witnesses no time to understand what had just happened. Naked men ran away in di erent directions, a person beaten by violent men with sticks turned out to be a dummy, and then they all abruptly disappeared; and so on. Sometimes these characters appeared in the public space and started making strange incomprehensible noises, grunts, and moans, as if trying to communicate but in a language that was broken down, incomprehensible, not quite human. All these events seemed perverse, violent or insane; they de ed social taboos and rational understanding, leaving the witnesses wondering whether they had observed a group of lunatics and drunkards, whether they were themselves going insane or if perhaps there was something “bigger” going on. In other words, the necrorealists attempted to induce the feeling of the uncanny among ordinary Soviet witnesses in the most mundane contexts.¹⁷ Later, they developed this form of experimentation under the in uence of textbooks on criminology and forensic medicine.¹⁸ These included an old book by an Austrian doctor, Eduard von Hofmann,¹⁹ Atlas of Forensic 17. Experiencing the uncanny may lead one to suspect that the strange behavior one experiences is the work of some strange forces that run the social world and that one has always been “dimly aware” of these hidden forces “in remote corners of his own being” (Freud 1919: 241–43). 18. Author’s interviews with Evgenii Yu t (2000, 2005, 2006) and Vladimir Kustov (2006). 19. Eduard von Hofmann (1837–97) was in the 1870s–1880s professor of pathologo-anatomy 728 Poetics Today : Medicine (published in Russian in 1900), that they purchased in a secondhand bookstore and a Soviet medical textbook, the English title of which is A Short Guide to Forensic Medicine (Avdeev 1966). Images of bodily injuries and decomposing corpses from these books provided inspiration for their provocations. Years later, when some members of the group started experimenting with art, these images in uenced their rst lms and paintings.²⁰ By the mid 1980s, the group’s leader, Evgeny Yu t, began making short lms, at rst simply editing the footage of their random activities. The making of these lms was not taken seriously; it was rather an excuse for gathering a large number of friends and practicing spontaneous provocations together. The rst ve-minute lm, “Werewolf Orderlies” (“Sanitaryoborotni”; see gures 4–5) was made in the winter of 1984 with no script or premeditated story line. It emerged spontaneously, in the process. The lm takes place in the winter countryside near Leningrad. A young man steps down from a local train and briskly walks through the snow to a nearby forest. He is dressed in a sailor uniform and carries a saw. A group of four men in white medical uniforms spot the young sailor and begin to pursue him. They run as a pack, hiding behind the bushes and making eccentric movements. Suddenly the young man stops by a tree and climbs it, apparently planning to commit suicide by jumping down. The crazy male nurses surround the tree, catch the jumping man, wrap him in a bag, toss him on the snowy ground, and start beating him with sticks. The lm was based on the footage of a slightly directed, spontaneous frolicking that they regularly organized (see Musina 2003). Other short lms soon followed. During the lming of “Woodcutter” (1985, 6 min.), the group grew to almost thirty members. They took a train to the countryside and ran around in the snowy forest behaving insanely “under the pretext of shooting the lm.” This was “shooting for the sake of merriment and merriment for the sake of shooting,” Yu t explains (author interview). The heroes and plots of these early short lms were vaguely based on real cases of insanity, perversion, trauma, and violence described in medical literature. For example, in one scene in the short lm “Spring” (“Vesna,” 1987—see gures 6–7), a character attempts to commit suicide by switching from one bizarre method to another, such as roller skating full speed into a tree trunk. His suicide attempts repeatedly fail. This scene was inspired by the chapter “Suicides” in von Hofmann’s book, which describes various “pathological” suicide cases in n-de-siècle Vienna (Mazin 1998: 130). at the Vienna Institute of Forensic Medicine. He pioneered forensic and criminological medicine and methods for studying biological processes in cadavers. 20. Author’s interview with Yu t (2006). Figures 4–5 “Werewolf Orderlies” (“Sanitary oborotni”), 1984, 5 min. Figures 6–7 “Spring” (“Vesna”), 1987, 10 min. Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 731 These early lms represented a genre of samizdat lm known today as “parallel cinema.”²¹ As with the mit’ki manuscripts, these lms were not made for a wide audience and were screened in front of friends and acquaintances in private apartments. However, rumors about them soon started circulating around the city, and the necrorealists acquired an informal cult status in Leningrad.²² This popularity came as a surprise and suggested that the group’s strange activities and their cinematic representations resonated with many young people in the city. In 1989, during the reforms of perestroika, a few episodes from these lms were shown on the cultural television program The Fifth Wheel, and necrorealist fame skyrocketed. Suspension of the Political Discussing political regimes that are perceived as immutable and eternal, Fredric Jameson (2004) argues that the only possibility for changing them may be to attempt imagining what is radically unimaginable in terms of the current political system. This e ect can be achieved by practicing a “suspension of the political . . . from daily life and even from the world of the lived and the existential” that may allow one “to take hitherto unimaginable mental liberties with structures whose actual modi cation or abolition scarcely seem in the cards” (ibid.: 45). Jameson focuses on the current context of global capitalism, which, he argues, has come to be perceived as “a situation in which political institutions seem both unchangeable and in nitely modi able” internally, and “no agency has appeared on the horizon that o ers the slightest chance or hope of modifying the status quo” (ibid: 44). However, his broader point about the possibility for change that a suspension of the political may achieve concerns any political system that is internally perceived as immutable, including Soviet late socialism of the 1970s–early 1980s.²³ The aesthetics that the mit’ki and the necrorealists developed in their provocations and lifestyles, as well as in their samizdat texts and lms, was centered precisely on the suspension of the political. This aesthetics shared one goal—to explore ways of living on the margins of the state’s political and legal universe, where a person could lead a life that was di erent 21. The term parallel cinema ( parallel’noe kino) was rst associated with the samizdat lms made by the brothers Aleinikov in Moscow (see Aleinikov 1989). However, later the necrorealist lms also came to be known by this name (see Mazin 1998). 22. So did other “parallel cinema” authors, the brothers Aleinikov, at that time in their native Moscow. 23. See discussion in Yurchak 2006. 732 Poetics Today : from regular “Soviet people.” These explorations challenged the sovereign state’s de nition of normative Soviet personhood but organized this challenge in terms that were not oppositional and that suspended any political identi cation as such. The result of these experiments with suspending the political was what the writer Andrei Bitov (1997) calls the main invention of such groups—an “organic version” of freedom “that had nothing to do with accepting or not accepting a given political order.” In other words, these groups experimented with a kind of self that was neither pro- nor anti-Soviet but beyond Soviet personhood as such—a self that some of them claimed was “organically” di erent from common Soviet people and that Yu t preferred calling at that time a self “uncontaminated by human consciousness” (neoporochennyi chelovecheskim soznaniem).²⁴ Suspending political concerns that had a binary logic determined by the sovereign state, these artistic groups demonstrated to themselves and to others that there were subjects, collectivities, forms of life, and physical and symbolic spaces in the Soviet context that, without being overtly oppositional or even political, exceeded that state’s abilities to de ne, control, and understand them. Therefore, although the cultural logic of these samizdat works and activities centered in suspending the political, they produced signi cant political e ects. References Aleinikov, Gleb 1989 “Blesk i nishcheta industrii parallel’nykh grez” (“Glamour and Poverty of the Industry of Parallel Dreams”), Iskusstvo kino 6: 118–33. Avdeev, M. I. 1966 Kratkoe rukovodstvo po sudebnoi meditsine (A Short Guide to Forensic Medicine) (Moscow: Meditsina). Bitov, Andrei 1997 “Mit’ki na granitse vremeni i prostranstva” (“Mit’ki on the Border of Time and Space”), Ogonek, 21 April (n.p.). Boym, Svetlana 1996 “Estrangement as a Lifestyle: Shkolvsky and Brodsky,” Poetics Today 17: 511–30. Cushman, Thomas 1995 Notes from Underground: Rock Music Counterculture in Russia (Albany: State University of New York Press). Dovlatov, Sergei 1993 Remeslo. Izbrannaia proza (Craft: Selected Prose), vol. 2 (Saint Petersburg: Limbus). Erofeev, Venedikt 1992 Moscow to the End of the Line, translated by H. William Tjalsma (Chicago: Northwestern University Press). 24. Author’s interviews with Yu t (2006) and Kustov (2006). Yurchak • Late Soviet Artistic Experiments on the Margins of the State 733 Farquhar, Judith, and Qicheng Zhang 2005 “Biopolitical Beijing: Pleasure, Sovereignty, and Self-Cultivation in China’s Capital,” Cultural Anthropolo 20 (3): 303–27. Freud, Sigmund 1919 “The Uncanny,” in Standard Edition of the Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, edited by James Strachey, 17:219–52 (London: Hogarth). Jameson, Fredric 2004 “The Politics of Utopia,” New Left Review 25 ( January–February): 35–53. Mazin, Viktor 1998 Kabinet Necrorealizma: Iu t i (Cabinet of Necrorealism: Yu t and ) (Saint Petersburg: INA). Musina, Milena 2003 “Beseda s Evgeniem Yu tom v teleprogramme ‘Sinii Fantom Kollektsiia’” (“Conversation with Evgenii Yu t on Television Program Blue Phantom Collection”). Transcript, dotsmedia.ru/news/2005/cinefantom/09/09sept_u t_06_12okt_ til.shtml. Nitochkina, A. 1991 “Populiarnaia mekhanika. Uchenye besedy s Sergeem Kurekhinym” (“Popular Mechanics: Learned Conversations with Sergei Kurekhin”), Ogonek, March 30–April 6, 25–26. Sapego, M. 2008 Mit’ki, “Moguchie kuchki” (“Mighty Lot”) Series (Saint Petersburg: Amfora). Shinkarev, Vladimir 1990 [1983] Mit’ki, opisannye Vladimirom Shinkarevym i narisovannye Aleksandrom Florenskim (Mit’ki, Narrated by Vladimir Shinkarev and Drawn by Aleksandr Florenskii) (Leningrad: SP Smart). Tang, Yi-Jie 1991 Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, and Chinese Culture (University of Peking and Washington, DC: Council for Research in Values and Philosophy). von Hofmann, Eduard 1900 Atlas sudebnoi meditsiny (Atlas of Forensic Medicine) (Saint Petersburg: Prakticheskaia meditsina). Yurchak, Alexei 2006 Everything Was Forever, until It Was No More: The Last Soviet Generation (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press). Žižek, Slavoj 1993 “Why Are Laibach and NSK Not Fascists?” MARS 3/4: 3–4.